Jacques Chirac, Former President of France

Over the last few years we have been hopping from one global crisis to another. Ten years of relatively good trading and economic conditions have seen businesses boom, economies thrive, and banks being very generous with loans and interest charges. But, then came the turmoil.

All of a sudden it was declared that the World was teetering on a knife’s edge and that business was in part responsible for it. Within twenty years, a global temperature rise would see the ice caps melt and a rise in sea water levels by several metres that would submerge London, unless the Thames barrier was replaced with a more capable structure. Various islands would disappear including the Maldives, and continents would lose land mass that would cause mass population migration, with devastating impacts on food and natural resources. Global economies would strain and local economies would experience significant down trends and turmoil. In the UK, the economy and population would be hit by adverse weather conditions, a seasonal shift to warmer winters and wetter summers and inflationary pressures on food supply and natural resources. If that wasn’t bad enough, the then stable energy market began to sway with surges in oil prices, economic catastrophe, and political instability in the eastern bloc regions would see the Russians holding neighbouring countries to ransom and hiking the prices of wholesale piped fuels and gas into Europe. In effect, Europe was succumbing to the whims of Russian energy conglomerates, even BP, a big player in Russia was struggling with the politics.

Then the credit crunch. The demise of Lehman Brothers, the near demise of AIG, the cashless acquisition of Merrill Lynch by Bank of America and the takeover of the giant HBOS by Lloyds TSB. So, not only are our banks at risk of disappearing, but our fuel supplies, food supplies, and to top it all, the World in which we live is at risk of changing beyond our imagination.

Now, I know you are probably feeling a little depressed after reading this, but here’s the positive news. All those negative factors are interlinked, and interlinked in such a way that, as business leaders we can use those global events to streamline our businesses, make them more efficient and prepare them for the inevitable upturn, but by the same token, we will also have met our environmental obligations and we will undoubtedly have adapted to climate changes and pressures on natural energy resource supplies.

Carbon Foot Printing

The global economy grew as a result of the industrial revolution because of the use of energy resources such as coal. However, owing to their sheer nature of the hazardous affect of burning coal, alternative fuel sources were sought, including gas, nuclear and other renewables. The impact of burning fossil fuels is not new, but the striking impact of the effects of burning these fuels didn’t really surface until the 1980′s. Even in the Thatcher years, the message to everyone was reduce your fossil fuel dependence, cut pollution and save the planet. Perhaps the coal mines were really closed because of climate change.

The problem is that now a global banking crisis is in full swing and with oscillating oil prices, governments are now looking back to coal as a dependable source of energy. We have seen the affects of extreme weather on oil prices and the impact of global politics on energy sourcing, so something has to be done and for most of us it is about reducing our dependence on energy, particularly coal, and of course, reducing costs.

So where does your business fit in this environmental and economic puzzle? Well, undoubtedly energy bills are an issue and new environmental legislation will also require compliance such as the Carbon Reduction Committment due to take effect in 2010. Understanding your business’ carbon footprint, the emissions generated from the use of fuel, travel and transport, as well as secondary emissions – emissions generated through the procurement of goods and services, becomes vital. Measuring carbon is no longer about reducing emissions and saving the planet, it is about managing cost and reducing waste.

In working with clients we have seen reductions in energy usage by as much as 15% in the first year and reduction in air travel by 20% in under six months. This is in addition to improvements in the control of waste, water, consumption and other energy sources. More significantly, clients have changed their reporting processes not just on emissions but on spend, keeping a tighter control on non-essential purchases and thinking more about the sustainability impacts from new purchases.

As a business you will need to consider two other important requirements; the first is the measurement of nitric oxide and methane, primarily from manufacturing and waste; and the second is the Carbon Reduction Committment which affects businesses that consume 6,000 megawatt-hours (MWh) of electricity between 1st April 2009 and 31st March 2010 and if your business including subsidiaries spends more than £500,000 per year on electricity it is likely to be included in the scheme. Both of these, if appropriate, will need to be written into your environmental management programme.

The Carbon Reduction Committment comes into full effect in April 2010 and will be a compulsory scheme for large users of energy. It will set caps on emissions with penalties for those that exceed those caps with the ability for organisations to buy or sell allowances on the secondary market or through the EU emissions trading scheme.

The benefits of Carbon Foot Printing

Once an initial footprint assessment has been completed and audited, the business will be in a better position to be able to regularly report on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions performance. If the business is growing quickly, then reporting emissions reductions per head will show that the business has got to grips with GHGs and is successfully measuring the impact of growth.

A carbon footprint appraisal also makes it very easy to set emission and cost reduction targets. If done properly the numbers will jump out at you and any lay person will be able to see where the impacts and risks lie. Measuring your own business activity is just one step in the right direction as more and more organisations are starting to measure the environmental activities and credentials.

“53% of companies are more likely to purchase from a company with a good environmental reputation” Source: Ipsos Mori (Oct 2007)

Probably the biggest benefit of carbon foot printing is the cost savings which are achieved through better management of resources and the implementation of good practice. It is not uncommon for companies to save as much as 30% on energy spend in under two years and in some cases, as much as 70% in five years by implementing low energy programmes, upgrading of lighting, boilers and controls and the use of renewables and green power supply.

“The adoption of key re-engineering efforts can result in reduced energy consumption, significant efficiency benefits and lower overheads.”

Source: Butler Group/Datamonitor (Sept 07)

One of the most contentious benefits has been the use of good PR. Too many organisations have used the ‘intent to implement’ as a piece of positive news, otherwise described as ‘Green Wash’, but we are all wise to that now even though it still goes on, particularly in the retail sector and retail energy sector.

“85% of IT professionals believe environmental factors are important in planning IT operations, yet just a quarter have written green criteria into their company’s purchasing processes.”

There are some excellent case studies where good implementation has resulted in some genuine results. Organisations such as Marks and Spencer have made huge leaps; Morrisons recently achieved the Carbon Trust Standard for demonstrating actual reductions in carbon; and even the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). It has to be said though that if you can accurately show that you have reduced emissions, reduced costs and mitigated other greenhouse gas emissions then you will win credit and probably more customers.

Good results can always improve your business reputation with existing customers and prospects but also with shareholders and the risk adverse amongst your team. To what extent you need to improve your business credentials to stay ahead is not clear. We have seen a surge in the requirement for ISO accreditation as part of a tender response, and you would be amazed by the number of household brands that do not even have an environmental policy, let alone a formal ISO accreditation. One of the first things we do for new clients is ensure that a policy is in place and is a true representation of the organisation’s aspirations and ability to meet those aspirations.

One of the biggest and most enthusiastic groups of benefactors are the employees. To date, all companies we have worked with have had full support from employees and in most cases staff members are keen to volunteer for responsible roles in helping the company achieve its objectives. Bear in mind, that most people will have done something at home and those with children will know that younger generations seem to know much more than we do about the risks of doing nothing.

Some other benefits include the ability to attract ethical investors as well as high calibre ethically and morally driven candidates. Fund managers are particularly interested in the environmental performance of listed companies and have scored thousands of companies already in various indexes accessible by the financial services markets. Finally, carbon foot printing encourages businesses to review their compliance to legislation and be able to prepare for future legislation such as the Carbon Reduction Committment.

“The global warming skeptics are going the way of the dodo bird – to extinction. The evidence is in. We’re definitely living in a warming world and headed into unknown, dangerous territory. The future of our civilisation is at stake! It’s time for each and every one of us to change wasteful habits and cut back on our energy consumption. A good start would be losing the SUV. Real men and women drive hybrids or take the bus. Let’s all think more and use less – of everything. Remember, warming is global, but solutions are local and – bottom line – individual.”

Bill Patzeri, scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Labratory

Your Business and Your Suppliers

By measuring your own emissions you will be taking the first step to reducing your business impact on the environment and to reducing costs within your organisation. By working with your suppliers and supporting your suppliers to do the same, you will be creating maximum benefit for all within the supply chain. You will, in effect reduce the cost of the supply of goods and services to your business and reduce and manage the environmental impacts created by trade and logistical operations, perhaps even negotiating with your suppliers for more favourable reductions and incentives to reflect the reduced costs and streamlined operations.

Moral Obligations

There is perhaps one driving factor that is important and it is that making the changes and implementing an effective environmental management programme is essential, it is the protection and management of natural resources for future generations. In our case, future generations that are already at school age and will be relying on our good judgement and good practice to provide a sustainable and environmentally beneficial and healthy world.

Greenhouse Gas tracking is outlined in The Climate Registry Protocol, which details the requirements for mandatory monitoring and tracking. The premise around greenhouse gas tracking are included in the U.S. Clean Air Act, aimed at improving air quality and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposes mandatory reporting of the gases contributing to global climate change from about 13,000 facilities nationwide. These facilities account for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions within the United States and present a logical starting point for emissions reductions in the US. The regulation would cover companies that either release large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHG) directly or produce or import fuels and chemicals that when burned emit large amounts of carbon (CO2) gases.

One of the major focuses of the Greenhouse Gas tracking protocol is refrigerant gases used in refrigeration and cooling systems by numerous facilities, including manufacturers, food processors, retailers, grocery stores, office buildings, municipalities and hospitals, just to name a few. Because of their chemical makeup, refrigerant gases contain significant levels of carbon in the form of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Use of these compounds has been regulated under the U.S. Clean Air Act for several years.

Greenhouse gases absorb and release radiation into the atmosphere, setting off a global warming effect on earth. The intent and overall goal of GHG tracking relates to better collection and management of the emissions data now so informed decisions can be made about future carbon trading schemes. The tracking protocols also help government entities to more accurately inventory the amounts of emissions reaching the atmosphere. The new GHG legislation puts in motion the data collection, organization, and first stage reporting mechanisms to allow the US to accurately calculate and maintain a GHG emissions baseline across the entire economy. This will allow for better understanding today as well as to determine progress for future Cap and Trade programs. With this accurate information, it can be determined if the guidelines are effective in lowering the harmful effects of these substances to the ozone layer.

Greenhouse Gas tracking involves measuring direct and indirect emissions and keeping extensive records on its usage, maintenance, leak containment and disposal. Heating and cooling systems, as well as other energy consumption, are defined as direct emissions.

Better and more effective GHG management is an objective of the current US government. No longer will the US sit by and watch the world attack the issue of climate change. The US is now taking action to lower carbon emissions to the betterment of future generations. By taking no action, the earth’s makeup would significantly change, with humans and animals adversely affected and marine and plant life severely damaged.

Greenhouse Gas (GHG) management and reporting is now falling under the EPA regulations contained within The U.S. Clean Air Act because the causes of global climate change is now well know. Human activities and the use of global warming substances, like refrigerant gases, are all leading to increased global warming. The substances are carbon dioxide, chlorine, bromine, nitrous oxide, chloroflurocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, methane, methyl bromide, methyl chloroform, sulfur hexafluoride, hydroxyl, perfluorocarbobs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, fluorine, and the fluorinated gases hydrofluorinated ethers and nitrogen trifluoride. The mandatory law is aimed at reducing the use of these substances to lower the effects of global warming.

Beginning in 2010, GHG management, tracking, and reporting will be environmental law for the highest emitting facilities. Part of the management will revolve around better tracking and reporting of refrigerant gases. Entities must submit usage reports and service records for all refrigerants having high GWP. Special calculations are applied to refrigerants when any leads occur. The GHG emission reporting rules and related protocols allow for progressive companies to take advantage of software already created to help with carbon emissions reporting. Some web applications allow organizations to track GHGs to the asset level across global, distributed facilities.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Biodiesel (fats converted into fuel) has become a significant player in the fuels marketplace, with production and use increasing exponentially since the mid-to-late 2000s. Biodiesel blends offer environmental and operational benefits for consumers, including increased cetane and lubricity, and lower emissions. Biodiesel’s largest drawbacks are storage instability and gelling in cold weather, which can vary substantially depending on the type of oil from which the biodiesel was made.

WHAT IS BIODIESEL?

“Biodiesel” is a fat that has been chemical altered through a series of reactions, resulting in a chemical that can be burned in a diesel engine as fuel in place of conventional #2 diesel fuel.

Contrary to the terms that are thrown around in the marketplace and on Internet message boards, the term “biodiesel” refers only to the actual “FAME” chemical that results from the chemical conversion of fat into fuel. The legal definition of biodiesel is “a long chain fatty acid ester containing only one alcohol molecule on one ester linkage”. The acronym “FAME” stands for “fully alkylated methyl ester”.

Now some consumers talk about putting straight raw vegetable oil or animal fat in their vehicle, referring to this practice as burning biodiesel fuel. However, raw vegetable oil chemically contains three ester linkages (instead of just one) and therefore is not legally defined as biodiesel. Raw vegetable has a different viscosity than biodiesel or diesel fuel (up to 10x more), and burning it in a diesel engine leads to big time engine deposits, ring sticking and lube oil dilution. This is true even if you just extend out your fuel by adding as little as 10% raw oil. The chemical conversion that turns raw vegetable oil into biodiesel FAME reduces its viscosity to that of diesel fuel, enabling it to burn like diesel does in the engine. Putting straight unconverted vegetable oil into your vehicle or boat is a recipe for engine problems and disaster, no matter what these people say.

The sole term “biodiesel” always refers to the 100% FAME product. Pure biodiesel is also referred to as B100 (100% biodiesel). When biodiesel is mixed with diesel fuel, you get a “biodiesel blend” that is designated as “Bxx”, relating to the percentage of biodiesel within the overall blend. B2, B5, B11 and B20 are the most popular and commonly found blends. Blends above 20% are less commonly found because engine manufacturers do not warrant their engines to run on blends above 20% biodiesel. If you stick to B5 and that fuel is in specification, it is illegal for an engine manufacturer not to honor the warranty. B2 and B5 are very commonly found in states that have a biodiesel mandate, such as Minnesota and Louisiana. Minnesota was the first state in the Union to mandate state-wide blending of biodiesel into all of their diesel fuel, starting in 2005.

HOW DO YOU MAKE BIODIESEL?

The basic recipe for biodiesel is:

100 units plant/animal oil + 20 units alcohol + catalyst ƒ 100 units of FAME feed stock + 10 units of recovered alcohol + 10 units crude glycerin.

Another way to produce biodiesel is to take 100 lbs fat + 10 lbs short-chain alcohol (like methanol) + a catalyst (sodium or potassium hydroxide) to get 100 lbs of biodiesel (about 13.5 gallons) and 10 lbs of glycerin.

These processes speak to why biodiesel production is relatively popular – the ingredients are cheap and easy to find and the reaction processes are simple. The catalyst for the reaction is sodium hydroxide, and the short-chain alcohol most commonly used is methanol, both cheap and easy to find. The downside to all of this is it is also easy for the small-time “backyard” biodiesel producer to produce biodiesel that of “out-of-spec” if they are not careful in their processes. The consumer can avoid these issues by only buying their biodiesel blend fuel from reputable suppliers.

BENEFITS OF BIODIESEL USE

Biodiesel blends offer some great benefits for consumers:

1. Higher cetane

B100 has a higher cetane number than most conventional diesel fuels; high cetane rating means easier starting for diesel engines and is comparable to the octane rating of gasoline. The cetane increase varies by the type of feed stock used to manufacture the biodiesel. Highly saturated fuels made from animal fats (like leftover frying animal grease) can have higher cetane ratings as high as 70; polyunsaturated feed stocks (including soy and rape seed) are lower, closer to a 47 cetane rating. Of course, this cetane increase is blunted by the proportion of the biodiesel mixed into the blend – a B5 only has 5% biodiesel in it, so the cetane increase is only 5% of what it would have been at B100.

2. Low Sulfur Content

Biodiesel is naturally low sulfur, which makes it easy to incorporate into a fuel system without running afoul of the stringent ultra low sulfur diesel regulations, where sulfur content is capped at a mere 15 parts per million.

3. Superior Lubricity

Mixing biodiesel into ultra-low sulfur diesel solves one of ultra-low sulfur (ULSD) diesel’s biggest problems – its lack of lubricity. Removing the sulfur from diesel fuel destroys many of the substances in the fuel which enable it to lubricate engine parts like injectors and fuel pumps. But adding as little as 2% biodiesel to a fuel blend gives 66% more lubricity to #2 diesel than before.

However this lubricity increase is not a linear one, as the curve of added lubricity benefit to percent biodiesel levels off as the composition approaches just 2.5%. So there is no additional benefit of added lubricity when comparing a B5 or a B20 to just a B2 blend.

Still, 66% more lubricity is a wonderful benefit to have.

4. Cleaner Emissions

This is the biggest reason why cities and government entities have recently started to include more biodiesel in the fuel supplies for their municipal and transit fleets..

Most large urban areas already fail EPA air standard qualities, putting them at risk of government action which could force them to adopt measures to improve air qualities or else lose federal monies. Taking action like switching to biodiesel blends can help meet these standards, and is also a good PR move, making the local government appear to be more concerned about green issues.

What emissions benefit does biodiesel use give? Depending on the blend percentage, biodiesel combustion results in lower emissions for most measured emissions related to hydrocarbon combustion. Unburned hydrocarbons and particulate emissions (the nasty black smoke you can see coming from the stacks of diesel big rigs) drops as much as 47-67% over straight diesel fuel alone.

Biodiesel emissions have lower levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PACs) and other harmful carbon ring compounds than conventional diesel fuel. A B20 blend will lower those harmful compounds by 20-40%. This is a good thing because PACs have been linked to causing cancer.

NOx emissions are also targeted by the EPA because NOx contributes to ozone production and poor air quality in urban areas (ozone in the sky is good; ozone on the ground hurts your lungs). Biodiesel has a neutral to slightly negative effect on NOx emissions; however, these figures are in dispute by some groups like the National Biodiesel Board and so research is still ongoing.

The story is different when you go from a truck or boat to burning biodiesel in a home heating boiler system. NOx does decrease when biodiesel is burned in boilers/home heating oil, due to burner differences. When blended into heating oil, NOx emissions are reduced by 1% for each 1% biodiesel blend added. This reduction happens no matter what kind of feed stock used to make it..

PROBLEMS AND DRAWBACKS WTH BIODIESEL USE

Biodiesel’s environmental benefits are blunted by its fuel-related problems.

1. Less BTU energy value than Diesel = Less Mileage

Relative to weight, the biodiesel FAME molecule contains less energy than a diesel hydrocarbon chain molecule. Less energy and lower heat of combustion results in lower mileage.

How much this drop is depends on who you ask and sometimes can be overstated. B100 contains 8.5% less energy per gallon than diesel fuel. The biggest part of the energy difference is due to the FAME containing 12% greater oxygen – more oxygen instead of carbon. When you factor in differences in density, this energy difference is reduced to 8.5%, apples to apples.

Typical energy values for the two fuels are 118,170 BTU for B100 vs 129,050 BTU for #2 diesel. However, at lower blending ratios like B20, the drop is not noticeable by most drivers, since 80% of the blend is now diesel fuel. So when using B20 or B5, you’ll get some mileage drop, but it’s not going to be on the order of 10 or 20% like some claim.

2. Cold Flow problems

The cold flow properties of biodiesel blends are highly dependent on the feed stock from which the biodiesel was made. The level of saturation is the biggest factor here. Highly saturated feed stocks (palm oil, coconut oil, animal fats) have the worst cold flow properties but are the most stable. The opposite is true for polyunsaturated feed stocks (rape seed, corn, canola oil) – they gel less in cold weather but are the most unstable.

A typical B20 blend has a gel point 3-10 degrees F higher than regular diesel. The cloud point for most B100 starts at 30-32 deg F for mono- and poly-unsaturated feed stocks (most vegetable oils) but can be up to 80 deg F for animal fats and highly saturated frying oils. When the fuel hits the cloud point, it gets hazy and will start the chain-reaction processes for gelling.

Also problematic is that the biodiesel pour point is only a few degrees lower than the cloud point. So when the fuel starts clouding up, it’s going to gel up and become thick only a few degees below that. For example, soy FAME (pure B100) has a cloud point of 38 degrees F, CFPP of 28 and a pour point of 25 F. Other differences between cloud point and pour point are usually 8-10 degrees F total – not very much.

If feasible, gelled biodiesel can be restored by heating the fuel to dissolve the precipitated crystals. To get crystals back into solution, the fuel needs to be warmed back up to 100-110 deg F to melt the most highly saturated crystals back into solution. However this does not help you if you are stuck in the middle of nowhere with a tank full of gelled biodiesel.

3. Materials Compatibility

This is really only a problem in older engines which use older materials like nitrile rubber, polypropylene, polyvinyl, or Tygon. The same is true for older fuel storage systems. The average consumer with a more contemporary vehicle doesn’t need to worry too much about it.

For systems containing these materials, they are all susceptible to attack from B100, which can damage these materials used in hoses and pump seals.

4. Increased NOx Emissions

As mentioned before, biodiesel can increase NOx production in internal combustion engines, which is bad for urban air quality. Just how much this increase is can vary by feed stock; the difference in NOx emissions between high and low NOx feed stocks is about 15%.

The composition of biodiesel determines how much NOx is produced. More highly unsaturated feed stocks produce higher NOx levels. Vegetable oil feed stocks are the most unsaturated and animals fats or tropical oils are the least, so you would expect vegetable FAMEs like soy and canola to product the worst results on NOx emissions.

Why is this?

Some past research has indicated that the increased NOx production is related to differences in injection rates into the combustion chamber caused by biodiesel’s higher “bulk modulus” (resistance to compression) and higher viscosity, which makes it less compressible than regular diesel. More technically, the higher bulk modulus and higher speed of sounds of biodiesel means the pressure rises faster in the fuel lines and develops an advance of nearly two degrees in injection timing in the engine. This in turn generates a faster pressure and temperature rise in the combustion chamber, leading to an increase in NOx.

It is apparent the best way to reduce NOx is by modification of engine technology. Retarding the engine timing by 1-5 degrees can bring B100 NOx down to diesel baselines or below. Unfortunately, the tradeoff for doing this is a reduction in power for the driver.

5. Effects on engine lubrication

Biodiesel use seems to have a negative effect on the engine lubrication. As proof, European engine manufacturers prescribe a 50-70% reduction in oil drain intervals with the use of blends above B5. A practical reason for this might be that biodiesel’s higher density and surface tension leads to more fuel dilution of the lubrication in the crankcase.

So if you use biodiesel and make a lot of short trips or drive in harsh or extreme conditions, it may be best to be more careful in how often you change your oil. Most manufacturers recommend every 5,000 to 7,000 miles on regular fuel. Using biodiesel could mean you need to err on the lower end of that scale.s

6. Cleaning Effects

The methyl esters in biodiesel have been used as low VOC (environmentally-friendly) cleaners for many year; they are excellent detergents. This is not always a good thing when you introduce them into a dirty storage or truck/boat fuel tank.

When first added to a fuel system, B100 dissolves any sediments present in the fuel filter and fuel storage tank and can cause fuel filter clogging and bursting, leading to injector deposits.

It is recommended to clean tanks and fuel systems before first introduction of B100 to a system. Luckily, B20 is too dilute to have a similar cleaning effect. So the average consumer may not have to worry about this too much.

7. Stability Issues

The typical shelf life for B100 made from soy or canola oil is about four to six months in ideal conditions. Ultimately, the working storage life of biodiesel (like diesel) is dependent upon the storage conditions.

For biodiesel, cold flow properties and stability seem to be corollaries – biodiesel with good cold flow response have poor stability and vice-versa. Biodiesel is susceptible to oxidation from exposure to air, water, light and certain metals. When it undergoes these reactions, it first becomes hazy, and then forms a thick precipitate gel. Analysis of this gel shows that it is mostly made up of organic compounds that are directly produced by the “oxidative cleavage” of double-bonds in the biodiesel molecule. In other words, oxygen-containing compounds (including water) will chemically attack biodiesel and break it apart, producing a mixture of components that combine to produce biodiesel gel and sediment.

What causes?

What kind of compounds can contribute to biodiesel instability and breakdown? Contact with air provides the oxygen necessary to fuel oxidation reactions that break the fuel down. Contact with water causes the biodiesel to hydrolyze and form organic acids, which are partly responsible for the compatibility problems with various rubbers. Contact with metals like tin and copper will degrade biodiesel and create sediments.

Now one might think that these instability effects are lessened if you simply dilute biodiesel in a B20 or less blend. But it is interesting to note that B100 does not produce sediments at the same rate that biodiesel blends like B5 and B20 will. This is because B100′s higher viscosity and greater concentration of chemical bonds act to disperse and suspend these oxidative compounds, preventing them from working together to accelerate the chain reactions that lead to sediment formation. So, as a general rule, B100 is more stable than B20 and other biodiesel blends.

When discussing biodiesel fuel stability, it’s common to hear terms like Thermal Stability and Oxidative Stability. Thermal Stability refers to the fuel’s ability to resist breakdown when exposed to heat for periods of time. B100 FAMEs tend to have good thermal stability features, due to the feed stock use in common cooking applications. If thermal breakdown did occur, injector coking would be the most likely engine problem associated with the poor-quality fuel.

Oxidative Stability is the fuel’s ability to resist oxidation when exposed to factors like air, water, and certain metals. This is the biggest weakness of biodiesel. One reason for susceptibility to oxidation is that the processing of some of the feed stocks can remove natural antioxidants from the compound. More highly saturated feed stock seems to be more resistant to this and have better oxidative stability.

Occurrences of biodiesel oxidation are even higher in erratically-used engines, such as generators and seasonal vehicles. Biodiesel blends that are stored for long periods of time accumulate water and are exposed to air and heat for long periods of time, and have the greatest chance of developing microbial contamination, which can produce further acids that accelerate fuel breakdown.

Why is this bad for engines?

Biodiesel which has been oxidized in this manner does not burn anywhere near as well as fresh biodiesel. Running this kind of fuel through the engine gives poor combustion, leading to a drop in mileage. Because it does not combust cleanly, it will form deposits in the injections and in the combustion chamber, and this poor combustion also contributes to excessive emissions, meaning that you’re going to lose some or all of the green emissions benefit you were getting by switching to biodiesel in the first place.

In addition to oxidative compounds like aldehydes and ketones, formic acid, acetic acid, other organic acids, water and methanol are common products produced by fuel degradation. These end products of the oxidation process may be harmful to fuel injector equipment and can cause problems such as injector clogging, corrosion of FIE components, gelling at low temperatures, and fuel seal failure.

COMPARISONS OF BIODIESEL FEED STOCKS

Increase demand and competition in the marketplace mean that people are making biodiesel from any feed stock they think could be suitable. As mentioned before, feed stocks give different characteristics to the biodiesel fuel, especially with respect to how stable they are and how well they resist gelling up in cold weather.

Saturated feed stocks have high stability and cetane ratings, but have a high cloud point, meaning they gel up at higher temperatures. Coconut oil, yellow grease and animal fats are examples of saturated oils

Monounsaturated feed stocks are in the middle of the pack, with medium stability characteristics, cetane rating and cloud point. Examples of these feed stocks are peanut oil and canola oil. Some yellow greases also fall into this category if they are high in both saturated and monounsaturated components..

Polyunsaturated feed stocks are most vegetables oils like soybean, corn and safflower oils. Biodiesel made from these oil have low cetane ratings and poor stability characteristics but are most resistant to gelling up in cold weather.

Intuitively one would think that different climates across the nation would spur producers to make biodiesel from only the feed stocks that give the cold flow and stability characteristics that are most advantageous for that climate. Animal fat biodiesels should work best in climates like Florida (never gets cold but is always humid). Vegetable oil biodiesels (less stable; better cold performance) should be preferred in the northern climates, whether it isn’t as humid (better storage conditions) but tends to get colder.

However, the market will often dictate what a producer will use to make fuel, and that means low price and availability are the bigger concerns. That’s true around the world, where different countries make biodiesel from what’s available to them. In Canada, they use fish oil and beef tallow. Palm oil is commonly used in tropical countries like Ecuador and Indonesia. In Europe, rapeseed is kind. Everyone uses what works for them.

BIODIESEL SPECIFICATIONS

Only biodiesel FAME that meets all of the specification set down in ASTM D-6751 can legally be sold as “biodiesel”. It is legally assumed that if the FAME meets specification and the diesel fuel meets ASTM D-975 specifications, then any biodiesel blend made from those fuels will be in spec. The biodiesel specification ensures that the fuel meets minimum requirements for properties like Flash Point (ensures that it burns properly in the engine), Acid Number (ensures the fuel has been properly made and is not already becoming unstable) and Free Glycerin (ensures all the waste glycerin has been washed from the fuel). The ASTM specification includes these and about ten other properties. If the biodiesel is properly made, it will meet all these standards. If not, then it brings the potential for engine and performance problems for the consumer. As a consumer, buying your fuel from reputable suppliers will ensure your fuel meets this specification and won’t give you any issues..

CONCLUSION

Biodiesel blends offer helpful benefits to consumers who are willing and able to side-step the issues associated with it. Many of these issues can be blunted by treating the fuel with an aftermarket product, of which there are many. As a consumer, you should expect many years of long-life from your equipment running on biodiesel.

An example of an accumulator for storing renewable energy is the NaS Plant announced by Mexico’s President Felipe Calderón. This plant will be capable of storing 1,000 MW. It will be one the largest single storage systems in the world.

The term NaS used with the plant is for the batteries that store the energy and means that batteries consist of sodium (Na) and sulfur (S). A NaS battery is made from inexpensive materials and possesses a high energy density, long cycle life, and high efficiency of charge/discharge.

This NaS plant in Mexico is also a good example of countries collaborating with each other to store vital resources. The accumulator is being built at a site near the north-western border with the US and will store energy generated by the large-scale solar projects being developed in the neighboring country.

While there are still issues regarding green energy that need to be addressed, it is clear that several countries have a profound interest in increasing their dependence on renewable sources of energy. In such as scenario, the best way to move forward is to first make sure that generation from renewable sources is not itself affecting the environment, and then store the generated energy so that the need to back up green energy with fossil fuels is eliminated.

Local retailers ought to promote their businesses around the environmental theme. They have a tremendous opportunity to drive sales among those who are concerned about environmental matters.

Here are three ways that shopping locally can help the environment:

1. By travelling less to shop, your customers reduce the carbon cost of their shopping.
2. More local shopping means more local jobs and this reduces the travelling for locals to get to work.
3. Local businesses which tap into local suppliers can get products on their shelves for a lower carbon footprint.

These messages and others which reinforce the value proposition of shopping locally need to be promoted to the community. While the benefits may be obvious to some, others will need a push.

Consider engaging in a marketing campaign around shopping locally. Such a campaign should be endorsed by a local environmental action group if possible – your promotion is a way of putting something back into the community.

The elements of a shop local campaign could include:

·Price comparison.Local shops are often considered more expensive than the bigger stores further away. If your prices are competitive, show this.
·Education.Show how shopping at your business helps the environment.
·Recycle.Actively and publicly recycle. This reinforces your credentials.
·Put a value on shopping locally.Try counting the carbon saving and keeping a tally thanking your customers for their help in helping the environment. You are all in this together after all.
·Be current.Make your displays, product range and services as good as your customers could expect in a bigger store in a mall or a larger town. Take away any reason they could have to make the journey.
·Host an event.Maybe a walk to shop day when customers leave their cars at home and walk to do their shopping.
·Offer a delivery service.Some customers will drive to easily carry home what they purchase. If you offer a delivery service you could cover eight or ten customers in one run and make it easier for your customers to walk to your shop.

Make it easy for your customers to do the right thing for the environment. Make your store the go to place in the area for those with an environmental conscience.

Actively promote this in the community and in your business. Make it a cause which you and all in your business fight for. It can become a business defining and growing point of difference – you could bank on the results.

This fracture has its history from 1902, when it was first described by Sir Robert Jones in his article in the Annals of Surgery. Having sustained the injury himself from dancing, he sought to describe the injury, especially where the cause is indirect impact. The article, which described six patients suffering from the injury, included the classification of the fracture into avulsion, stress and the common Jones fracture.

Diagnosing Jones Fracture

Most cases of this fracture occur without considerable impact. Therefore, most Jones fracture cases easily pass for sprains. When one is suffering from this injury, they experience pain over the area of the fracture, coupled with swelling and difficulty in walking.

In order to ascertain that one really has the fracture and not a sprain, a general diagnostic x ray is essential. This x ray should be taken from all views; oblique, anteroposterior, and lateral. The foot should be in full flection when taking these x rays.

Treating Jones Fracture

A tenuous fracture can easily be corrected using a splint, a cast or a walking boot for one or two months. At this stage, it is highly recommended that one should avoid exerting any pressure or placing any weight on the foot until the doctor allows it. With a success rate of 75 percent, the cast or splint proves quite effective in treating minor cases of the injury.

Acute fractures, however, need specialized treatment methods. Such methods include placing a dynamic compression plate on the strained side of the fracture and using the figure 8 monofilament K wire on the fractured bone.

If the fracture is too acute, it may need to be fixed from the inside. This means that cancellated or cortical screws may be used to join the bones together. Bone grafts may be required to accelerate the healing process. A regular dose of calcium and Vitamin D is also required to hasten the healing of the fracture.

Though a splint or a cast is recommended for minor fractures, surgery is appropriate in certain situations. If an athlete suffers from a Jones fracture, a surgery may be necessary to shorten the extended healing period. However, before opting for surgery, it is best to discuss all the available options with your doctor.

Prospecting Jones Fracture

A metatarsal fracture can fail to unite even after treatment. Though a common occurrence, this failure to unite can cause a chronic condition. If this occurs to you, the first recommendation from your doctor will be an extended time in the cast. This could go up to 20 weeks.

The fracture can fail to heal for several reasons. For starters, the fracture normally occurs at a poor blood supply area. Since the area is a “watershed”, it reduces the chances of a successful healing process. In addition, the area of the fracture has numerous tendons. These tendons and muscles may pull the fractured bones apart, which may prolong or prevent healing.

Differentiating Jones Fracture from Other Injuries

Jones fracture is the most severe fracture of the fifth metatarsal bone. There are other fractures of the same bone which are commonly confused with this fracture, though they are less serious. J fractures usually occur on the intermetatarsal joint. However, if the fracture is on the tarsometarsal joint, then it is an avulsion fracture. Avulsion fracture is also called the Pseudo-Jones fracture.

These fractures are also commonly, but wrongly, diagnosed as apophysis, a common adolescent developmental condition. There are several indicators that one is suffering from apophysis and not the fracture. These indicators include absence of fractured edges and the angle of the lucent line. In the fracture, the metatarsal axis is at 90 degrees, while in apophysis, it is parallel.

Jones fractures can be a serious problem depending on how they are handled. Proper diagnosis and early treatment are recommended to ensure the success of the treatment. Enough calcium and vitamin D are also very essential to the healing process. It is also important to know that a Jones fracture can be treated.

The next rule of fishing secret is preparing your chumming container. Use the large one with screw on the top. You can add 2 lb containers of many protein drinks and some products of weight gaining. Adding some weights inside of the chumming container is helpful to prevent the floating. You can add “blue gill” fish scraps into the container. The fish will help you to increase the volume among the new bathes.

When you want to mix the ingredients, you should not crush it to a small size or crush it roughly together using a stick. In fishing secret, you should keep the liquids come out, so you should choose the large chunks that expectedly last larger. In the contrary, the small one will make you lose the container. After a few minute, you use it become finer, you probably want to dump the contents to women stocking. Therefore, you can knot and set back it to the container.

Using surgical gloves put ten or twelve cotton balls in a bowl to take the mix. After mixing it together, you can separate each ball by cornmeal to help you release it from your hand. Then, roll into 1″ size balls and let it freeze on a plate, so you can use as hook bait. The next step, you need to toss the container into water approximately 15 to 20 yards about 30 until 45 minutes. Those fishing secrets will help you to catch large delta fish easily.

Typically, the term biofuels means transportation fuels, replacing or at least reducing the requirement for gasoline derived from petroleum. This is worth remembering because biologically generated ethanol, vegetable oils, and animal fats have been used for centuries for cooking and lighting (think of alcohol burners, old-fashioned street lamps, candles). But today, almost no one is thinking about using biofuels for anything other than powering internal combustion engines (The idea is not a novel as it sounds; Henry Ford originally designed the Ford Model T to run on ethanol, not gasoline).

Currently there are two biofuels available in large enough quantities to have an impact: bio-ethanol and biodiesel. Bio-ethanol is essentially the same substance humans have been producing for 6000 years in beverages by fermenting sugars present in almost any starchy vegetable or sugary fruit. The main difference is the refining needed following distillation to produce ethanol to the substantial exclusion of water. Only then can it burn efficiently in a truck or automobile.

Biodiesel is completely different, chemically. It is produced by reacting plant or animal fats with methanol to produce long-chain fatty acid methyl esters, which can be blended in substantial amounts with traditional petroleum-derived diesel and used as a transportation fuel. Biodiesel is, in point of fact, a good fuel, and it is cleaner-burning than traditional diesel. On some farms all the tractors and farm equipment are run on 100% biodiesel.

Both bio-ethanol and biodiesel are considered first generation biofuels: producible now using existing technology. Second generation biofuels are the next wave, comprising compounds that are more fuel-like such as butanol or hydrocarbons. There is a second generation biodiesel as well, using oils produced by algae in place of plant oils derived from soybean, canola or corn.

The real plum will be when biofuels-ethanol first, but eventually second generation biofuels such as butanol or hydrocarbons-can be produced from waste cellulosic materials such as corn stover (the stalk left after corn is harvested), bagasse (the sugar cane stalk left after sugar has been pressed out), corn cobs, wood chips, straw, and the like. These sources are waste products, already produced anyway, so no crowding out of agricultural food products will occur. I don’t care whether this is called third generation or not. What is important is that using waste agricultural materials instead of food materials will essentially eliminate the upward pressure that current biofuels production has exerted on food prices.

What is indisputable is that every gallon of biofuels generated replaces roughly a gallon of fuel that would otherwise come from petroleum (the equation is not exact due to the varying energy value of different biofuels). This both reduces our dependence on foreign oil and extends our domestic oil supply. Economics are another matter. Biofuels cannot compete with petroleum at today’s (February 2009 when this was written) oil prices of less than $40 per barrel. But biofuels do help set a cap on the price oil. What that price level is remains a subject for debate and varies from one biofuel to another. Delving into the details of the cost of biofuels is a topic we will address another time. It is important, however, to acknowledge that the capping effect on fuel prices exists as long as biofuels are maintained as a viable alternative.

Regarding greenhouse gas emissions there is also a range of opinion. In general, however, most observers agree that corn-based biofuels provide a relatively small benefit in this regard, if any. Biofuels derived from existing sources of cellulosic waste would provide a larger reduction, simply due to the fact that no additional energy to harvest the raw material is required. How important it is to achieve this reduction in greenhouse gases is also debatable and outside the scope of this article.

One take-away conclusion about biofuels is the following: corn-based biofuels, whether first or second generation, should only be considered as a stop-gap measure, to be used until the cellulose-based technology has been sufficiently developed. If, within 2-5 years, the displacement of corn by cellulose-based technology has taken place in the USA, upward pressure on food prices due to biofuel production will have abated, and an alternative to petroleum will exist that both reduces our dependence on foreign oil and helps to put a cap the market price of oil.

Like the repeater effect itself, adding light transmission and casting a shadow against a backdrop is quite easy. The effects you produce are amazing. Granted, some of the 3D dimension calls for new visualization and perspective but this is a great opportunity to introduce yourself to the multiple views available in After Effects.

What is really exciting for me is that this all is built on one single object and even the light transmission, casting shadows, when applied to one single object, is propagated to the repeated mosaic. You produce this fabulous geometric pattern but you also create a shadow image complete with color and opacity. If you want to play Hollywood and use multiple lights, your mosaic can be cast on multiple surfaces.

Once you’ve established and tested your pattern, adding light transmission is the same procedure you use for a single object.

Many of the After Effects techniques and procedures can be a bit subtle and with that, confusing. Often there is a single setting that makes the difference between getting the effect you are looking for to work but the objects you are working with have many settings to adjust. Sometimes we find ourselves playing ‘hunt and peck’, knowing this worked before, moving through several settings turning them off and on hoping to ‘rediscover’ how it worked.

When I am faced with that, in After Effects or life in general, I bring my project down to the bare skeleton of what it takes to make this technique work. Create only the objects you need to produce the effect you want, adjust the settings that make it work, and at that simplest level of definition, make a note of exactly what was necessary to produce your desired result. Then you can build adding more objects, more complexity but you have your core effect defined and working first. This was the case for me with light transmission and yes it does get propagated with a geometric grid so let’s get light transmission working for a single object first.

In a new project, create a shape. This is going to be the wall receiving your light transmission so make it nearly the complete size of your composition. We’re going to shift it’s orientation to easily receive light and we want it to be easy to see so make it a light color. To shift it’s orientation and have ‘material’ qualities it must be a 3D object so be sure and check the little 3D box once you have defined it.

Orient your box about 310 degrees on the ‘Y’ axis, reflecting it as if it would become a left wall. You are going to project your image against the ‘wall’. Once you have defined it as 3D and oriented away from a flat view, After Effects is very flexible in allowing you to simply move and scale it with your cursor. In this exercise it is a backdrop so it’s size, shape, and angle aren’t critical but with your cursor, move it ot the left of your drawing board, scale it go completely from top to bottom. Open ‘Material Options’. Note that ‘Accepts Shadows’ and ‘Accepts Lights’ are on by default.

Create a new shape. This is going to be the source of your grid and also project it’s image against this wall so make it much smaller; visualize this producing a 10×5 grid, 10 columns by 5 rows and that can guide your sizing. This new shape can be anything but why don’t we stick with our ‘keep it simple’ approach and make it a square. Remember when you are defining a rectangle, simply holding down the ‘shift’ key while defining it’s width and height will force a true square. Your backdrop is a lighter color to easily display the light it receives. Make this square a brighter color, to easily see your light transmission. Execute the same steps here. Your shape projecting light must also be 3D, oriented at the same degree.

Now create a light object. You will see the heart of the cone; as you place your cursor on the light, After Effects displays your ‘X’, ‘Y’, ‘Z’ axis (red, green, blue) and as you attach to the light to move it, it displays which axis you will be moving on. As you move around with x,y,z displayed, when none are displayed but the complete light is, this mean you will be moving on all axis at once. Much like the orbit camera tool, you will be moving your light about freely in 3D space and I find this the simplest way to achieve the position I’m looking for. This is also a ‘learning to ride your bycycle’ in After Effects exercise. It takes a little practice to get comfortable making choices, and appreciating the effect when you begin moving your light around. Under the “Light Options’ change the ‘Casts Shadows’ option to ‘On’. On your second shape, the smaller square, under the ‘Material Options’ change the ‘Casts Shadows’ option to ‘On’. What you should see at once is a black shadow behind your little square. As you move your light around, the shadow will move about.

Let’s pause for a minute and review. All we have done so far is draw two shapes, orient them in 3D space, create a light object, and change two settings, turn on the ‘Casts Shadow’ attribute on the light and the second shape, our square. We’re almost done. We see the shadow from the square cast against our backdrop, we can move our light around and adjust it’s placement. Now on our square under ‘Material Options’ change ‘Light Transmission’ from 0 to 100%. So far we have created an object to project light, one to receive it, it does project a shadow but now will also transmit light. It will transmit it’s color. Depending on the contrast between the backdrop and the square’s color it might not be obvious. If in doubt you might change the square’s color to bright red. Once you see the color, return to the light transmission setting and scrub it so to speak, back and forth from 0 to 100 to 0%. You should easily see your black shadow take on then lose the new color.

This is great time to play with some of the other light settings, in particular the light intensity which will really intensify your color and the cone angle of your light which will broaden and reduce the scope of your light.

Now all that is left is creating a grid from our square. Briefly, you place your cursor on ‘Contents’ to be sure your repeater is created alongside your rectangle (ours is a square, is will display as ‘rectangle in After Effects). Click ‘Add’ ‘Repeater’. Create ‘Repeater 1′ and ‘Repeater 2′. Under ‘Tranform Repeater 1′ set your ‘X’ position to 25, ‘Y’ to 0. Under ‘Repeater 2′, set your ‘X’ position 0, your ‘Y’ position to 25. Set the ‘copies’ value under ‘Repeater 1′ to 10 and the ‘copies’ value under ‘Repeater 2′ to 5. There you have it. You have created an ‘X-Y’ grid, 10 columns and 5 rows; your original square was casting a shadow but now is also transmitting it’s light to the receiving wall behind.

We’ve done this all with 2 shapes and a light! This is definitely time to play. You have a simple shape that has become a grid in a 3D layout with light, shadows, and light transmission. Move your grid around with your cursor. Notice it is the ‘position’ values or your layer ‘Contents’ that are changing when you do. These are the values you would animate to produce these same motion effects. Play with your light intensity and cone angle. These are the values you would animate to produce these same effects. Once you have constructed a complex shape, it is worthwhile to let After Effects be the teacher by adjusting some relationships manually and observing which values are being changed under your object definitions.

Finally, on your Composition panel, begin checking out the different views. In this exercise with our backdrop on the left and our camera on the right, you will be ‘looking into’ your creation with a ‘right’ view. Beginning to visualize 3D, the shadows objects will cast, how to predict light transmission is greatly assisted by reviewing the complete set of views presented to you by After Effects.

Trolling is equally productive in salt or freshwater. It is synonymous with game-fishing but can capture a variety of fish of all sizes and in all depths of water. Technological advances in boating equipment, navigational aids, depth sounders, water temperature gauges, as well as in the tackle used by the angler has fuelled an explosion in the number of trolling offshore anglers who head out every day to feeding grounds miles from the coast.

Trolling can be done with dead or live baits and lures. The bait/lure combination has been developed over the years whereby a skirt or plume of feathers can adorn the head of the bait. This can serve two purposes, it attracts the attention of the fish and prolongs the life of the bait. As the bait is dragged through the water the skirt breaks the water ahead of the baitfish and reduces the amount of drag and friction on the bait, providing a streamlined, faster trolling action. This action excites the fish and encourages a strike at the moving bait.

Recreational and commercial fishermen both take advantage of the combination of live and bait trolling. Live bait trolling can be particularly successful where baits such as skipjack, slimy mackerel or yellowtail are trolled near drop-offs, peaks and troughs or near bait schools. Usually carried out at speeds of less than 3 knots, it is best that the angler hold his line clear of the rod to enable awareness of the panicked movements of the bait as a predator approaches.

Live baiting is best done with a high drag or free spool and a long period allowed between the fish taking the bait and the strike back, unless the fish hooks itself straight away and runs. Trolling with dead baits is the most-used method when fishing for billed fish. Many anglers troll with a combination of live and dead baits and usually at speeds between 3 and 6 knots.

One method to rig up dead baits is to hook the bait to the top of the head and from the throat or belly. Upon the strike, if the fish is not hooked, the line can be retrieved along the surface to tease the fish into a second strike. If the bait is sliced by a mackerel or a wahoo, the hook-up can be achieved when the fish returns for a second strike on the mutilated head.

The advantage of trolling with lures is that they can be trolled at high speeds and cover more ground and do not break up or disintegrate as do the live or dead baits. Lure trolling is to troll instantly. Bait trolling can be time consuming to setup and needs ideal conditions. If fish are following but not striking at lures, it would be best to vary the speed of the boat or to draw the line in at fast then slow speeds to give the impression of fleeing bait from the fish. Lure trolling should be conducted with a V or W pattern to reduce the chance of tangles. The outside baits or lures are further out, with the inner lines moving back in closer to the boat. It is also advisable to have the heavier lures in the centre so that the lighter, surface lures will skip over the others during turns.

Drags should be set to firm and the boat gunned or accelerated upon the strike to counteract the action of the fish and to eliminate stretch. Lures should be rigged on heavy monofilament nylon or wire traces to avoid cut-offs. An advantage of wire leaders is that the wire sits well in the water and does not detract from the movement of the lure. All trolled lures should remain within 70 metres of the rear of the boat because the propeller wash has brought the fish in to the back of the boat already.

Many inland fish live and feed close to the bottom. Lures must be able to go to lower levels. Trolling distances vary but where there are underwater obstacles, having too much line out can be disastrous. If the lure doesn’t get caught up by an obstacle, a hooked fish with enough line can dart behind an obstacle and cut off. Of course, fish usually prefer this type of environment with lots of dead tress and snags for hook-ups.

Surface and shallow-diving lures do not work so well in inland areas as with other freshwater species. Inland fishing requires sub-surface lures, floating-diving lures which go way down and can work through a variety of depths.

Anglers who are skilled in both techniques tend to use trolling to investigate depth, type of water and location then resort to casting and retrieving. Some of the best lure-fishing waters in New South Wales Australia, are the clear, upper reaches of the western rivers near the tableland regions. Native fish thrive in fast flowing waters with high oxygen content rather than on the flat country where the water flows at a slower pace.